**This blog was originally published in Latvian and translated by EPALE Ireland.**

Author: Dace Purina, Master of Science in Education

The importance of educating and upskilling the workforce has never been greater than it is now. Globalization, the development of technology, the age composition of the population among many other factors force employers to pay increasingly more attention to the continuous improvement of workforce competency or even the retraining of employees to prevent the growing lack thereof.

Today, the performance of work related tasks is directly connected to continuous learning. Learning in the workplace is one of the elements of lifelong learning and should be considered as one of the most essential tools in the improvement of worker competency, which help them adapt to change and solve current problems, especially in today’s Covid conditions.

The concept of workplace learning is both the object of research in education sciences (including adult education) and management sciences in addition to being a matter of interest among other branches of sciences, such as, for example, psychology (including organizational psychology), sociology, economics, etc. However, although the concept is the same, the object of research for each science differs, for example, researchers in the field of education sciences aim to investigate and create access to improving learning conditions, knowledge, skills and competency in workplaces for the development of the individual. On the other hand, the object of research for management sciences is the organization, one which learns, their goal being to find an explanation for the organization’s successes and failures, opportunities and limitations on the development of organizations. However, both sciences have one common denominator - continuous development. The historical development of “workplace learning” can be viewed as both a process which helps to develop and increase the competitiveness of a company or institution, or a process that helps to develop employee competency.

The historical development of the concept of workplace learning can be traced back to the beginning of the 20th century, where John Dewey and his experimental and social learning (Rashman et al., 2009) and Kurt Lewin (Marsick&Watkins, 2003) can be mentioned as the first significant authors. Dewey believed that human action, i.e. how he performs his duties, solves problems, cooperates with others, is central to learning. The collaboration with others in a given environment is continuous, the circumstances of which create the basis for learning, including learning in the work setting (Svensson et al., 2004).

In the 1960’s, along with the managers of organizations, scholars who studied companies, their structure, the factors determining their development and growth, the reasons for their failures became deeply interested in the concept of “workplace learning”. This interest was connected to studies on employee work efficiency, where "learning by doing" was associated with an increase in employee productivity (Arrow, 1962) and which, accordingly, contributed to the company's overall efficiency and profit growth.

Already at the end of the 20th century, discussion about human capital, its role and value (for example, Boud & Garrick, 1999) emerged, and entrepreneurs showed an increasing interest in investing in employees in order to increase the competitiveness of their companies. It is argued (Hager, 2011) that the understanding of workplace learning has developed rapidly since the 1990’s, when it was explained through the approach of social learning, meaning that workplace learning is based on practical activity in the workplace involving company employees (Lave & Wenger, 1991). In addition, in the 1980’s - 1990’s scientific research challenged the idea that learning can only take place in educational institutions and that that is the only place where company employees can supplement their knowledge and skills or learn new knowledge and skills.

The book “Informal and Incidental learning in the Workplace” by Victoria Marsick and Karen Watkins released in the year 1990 is considered the first academic publication to initiate focused research on workplace learning (Marsick and Watkins, 1990). In accordance with the title of the book, its authors characterize workplace learning as an activity without the specific intention of learning and as a by-product of work. The authors claimed that learning often happens through everyday life and especially in impromptu situations which cannot be resolved through customary approach. As a result, employees are forced to consider that specific situation from a different point of view, thus unconsciously experiencing a learning moment. One of the most important elements in the process of workplace learning was defined as reflection, which is necessary for the transformation of employees' professional skills.

Continuing research on workplace learning, V. Marsika and Marija Volpe emphasized that creating a supportive work environment for informal learning activities in a company not only satisfies the company's needs for competitiveness, growth and, accordingly, ensuring profit, but also the needs of the employee for development and learning. Studies on workplace learning in companies confirm that the majority of workplace learning is informal, which can range from 60-80% to as much as 90% (Marsick and Volpe, 1999). At the same time, it should be pointed out that certain scholars, for example Sally Sambrook point out that it is necessary to distinguish between learning at the workplace and learning at work, where learning at the workplace is understood as a more formal process and learning at work is an informal process (Sambrook, 2005).

The approach of workplace learning, including informal learning, is then further developed in research at the beginning of the 21st century. So, for example, Michael Eraut has emphasized that informal learning is often invisible with research participants most often not realizing that they have participated in workplace learning. The author claims that the majority of company employees still think that learning can take place outside of the workplace, or can be organized in the workplace in the form of formal events such as seminars (Eraut, 2004).

On the other hand, Stephen Billett, while admitting that learning in the workplace has an informal character, nevertheless emphasizes that coincidental learning in the workplace is not enough, and therefore it is necessary to organize more formal and targeted learning in workplaces (Billet, 2002, 2004, 2011). This type of learning is mostly addressed in research on human resource management (Tynjälä, 2013).

S. Billett believes that the distinction between formal and informal learning in the workplace is debatable (Billett, 2004), while David Beckett and Paul Hager have created a matrix of formal and informal workplace learning, which attempts to define signs by which it would be possible to distinguish between normal and informal workplace learning (table 1):

table 1.

Characteristics of formal and informal workplace learning

 

Formal learning	Informal learning
Focus on improving one skill	Focus on a holistic approach
General, often not related to a specific situation at work	Specific and directly related to the specific situation at work
The participant is a passive observer	The participant actively participates
The learning activity ends with the end of the learning event	Depends on other activities
Learning is stimulated by the teacher	Learning is stimulated by the participants themselves
Learning is individual	Learning is collective

M. Eraut has also tried to define characteristics that could help distinguish formal from informal workplace learning. The author has defined the following four characteristics of informal workplace learning: "indirect, unplanned, unstructured learning and learning without a teacher" (Eraut, 2004).

F. Phil Hodkinson and Heather Hodkinson view workplace learning as both intentional and planned learning as well as unintentional and unplanned learning. With deliberate and planned learning, it is understood that the content of the training includes something that the employees already know and can do, the purpose of the training is to improve the existing knowledge by learning something new that would allow them to perform their direct work related duties differently than before. On the other hand, unintentional and unplanned learning means daily socialization of employees, impromptu change in the practice of performing daily direct work related duties which means doing something that has not been done before (Hodkinson and Hodkinson, 2004). M. Eraut also believes that workplace learning should be perceived as a social interaction between employees (Eraut, 2000).

Similar to F. Hodkinson and H. Hodkinson, other scholars such as P.E. Per-Erik Ellström believe that workplace learning has a dual nature. First, workplace learning is reproductive, meaning that the employee gains the knowledge and practices already existing in the company. Second, workplace learning is a developmental and innovational event, and by this it is understood that knowledge is created in the company and is created by the company's employees themselves. Both types of learning are not mutually exclusive, but the vast majority of organizations mainly use "reproductive learning" as a response to solving current problems and achieving the company's short-term goals. On the other hand, development and innovation measures are related to the company's long-term strategy. The author defines workplace learning as a relatively long-term change in an individual's competency and as a result of the individual's interaction with the environment at the workplace. In this approach, learning and competency development have a close relationship, which focuses on the development of individual skills and abilities in the context of the requirements of the specific work environment. At the same time, the author points out that workplace learning is a continuous process which can be both formal and informal with results both positive and negative. And learning outcomes depend both on the individual's motivation and previous experience, as well as on various factors in the workplace (Elkjaer, Høyrup, & Pedersen, 2007).

Continuing to analyze the concept descriptions in research (for example, Yeo, 2008), it should be concluded that workplace learning may have certain elements of formal education, but basically workplace learning is comprised of informal educational activities that are included in the daily activities of the workplace, including social interaction. The aforementioned study claims that more than 80% of workplace learning takes place informally through mentoring, coaching, networking with work colleagues, etc. Michael Silverman also believes that the best and most important source of information, knowledge and skills from which one can learn the necessary skills is a colleague. An experienced colleague will be best able to communicate work related responsibilities, challenges and necessary changes (Silverman, 2003). Michael Armstrong believes that workplace learning is experiential, it is learning by working and observing how others work, therefore, workplace learning is an integral part of work and is essentially informal (Armstrong, 2016).

Referring to research conducted by M. Silverman on workplace learning, it can be divided into 3 groups:

1. internal (organized in the organization) training,
2. experiential learning that includes elements of mentoring and coaching and
3. continuous learning.

Internal training means planned training activities that take place at the workplace and the lecturers are either employees of the establishment or invited experts. Experiential learning usually takes place through routine work related tasks, the process is observed and the results are evaluated (Silverman, 2003). However, some researchers (Eraut, 2000) believe that experiential learning occurs unplanned, during the daily performance of one's direct work related duties, where learning is supported by a more experienced colleague. In addition, it is believed that the transfer of an employee to another position within the same establishment or, for example, changing their direct work related responsibilities, is also a form of experience-based learning. On the other hand, continuous learning is characterized as a group activity created by employees with the aim of identifying specific measures to improve the establishment's operations.  Irina Nikolova also points out in her research that there are two important factors of workplace learning; firstly, learning linked to work related duties, when learning takes place by reflecting and doing work; and secondly, interactive learning, when learning takes place from colleagues and managers (I. Nikolova et al, 2014).

With the development of modern technologies and the changing working environment, taking into account the Covid situation, workplace learning cannot be solely linked to the physical location of the workplace. Remote work, remote studies, e-studies, etc. are widely used nowadays. As a result, workplace learning must include both the physical location and the virtual environment, as well as the factors that influence the work environment and employee relationships within it, such as shared goals, ideas, behaviors and attitudes.

Table 2 summarizes the concepts used by some of the most significant scholars and their characteristics.

                                                                                                                                    table 2.

Characterization of the concept of workplace learning

Authors	Concept (in English)	Description of the concept
Marsick, 1987	Learning in the workplace	...individual learning in the workplace that is intentional and reflects the experiences of the individual.
Watkins & Marsik, 1992	Workplace learning	... workplace learning as formal, informal and incidental learning.
Boud & Garrick, 1999	Learning at work	... workplace learning is necessary to benefit both the workplace and the individual.
Matthews, 1999	Workplace learning	... a well-founded learning process for the achievement of the desired individual and company goals. The results should promote the development of both the individual and the company, taking into account the existing and planned goals of the company and the individual's career development.
Eraut, 2000	Learning in the workplace	.... workplace learning is informal learning.
Engeström,  2001	Learning at work	... extensive learning.
Billett, 2001	Work practices	Work practices are necessary to structure and purposefully acquire the knowledge required for work.
Hodkinson & Hodkinson, 2004	Workplace learning	Workplace learning is a diverse and complex phenomenon and so far no comprehensive theory has been developed that comprehensively examines this approach.
Lohman, 2005	Learning in the workplace	... structured and unstructured work-based activities that create new capabilities to effectively perform direct job related responsibilities.
Clarke, 2005	Workplace learning	... workplace learning is formal and planned.
Sambrook, 2005	Work-related learning	... work-related learning includes learning in the workplace, meaning both formal learning (such as training courses) and informal learning.
Fenwick, 2008	Workplace learning	... expand individual capabilities for flexible and creative behavior in the workplace.
Jacobs & Park, 2009	Workplace learning	... the process by which an individual engages in either learning programs or courses or some other experiential learning activities with the aim of acquiring the necessary skills to meet present and future demands.
Avis, 2010	Workplace learning	... the workplace can be an essential place for learning and development and where knowledge can be created.
Collin et al, 2011	Learning in the workplace	... learning in the workplace is perceived as an ongoing and everyday practice that takes place through the usual work systems.
Armstrong, 2016	Workplace learning	... workplace learning is closely linked to work and is informal.

The collected and analyzed information shows that scholars do not have a unified approach to defining and applying the concept of "workplace learning".  

The author defines "workplace learning" as the deliberate learning of employees in the work environment in order to continue to improve their individual knowledge and skills, using existing work experience, knowledge and skills, with the aim of promoting both their own and the workplace's development. The author's opinion describes the essence of workplace learning, that workplace learning is organized with a specific goal; training is organized for specific employees as training participants, employees participate in training consciously, specific methods and approaches are used in training implementation; training has concrete results to be achieved and should contribute to the development of both the employee and the organization.

When analyzing the concept of "workplace learning” it is important to distinguish it from the concept of “work-based learning”, which is understood as "a form of professional education in which for at least half of the process a young person learns practical skills in real work environment in the company, but theoretical knowledge - in the professional education institution". (Education Law, Article 8, in the first part of Article 28 of the Vocational Education Law). In several countries of the European Union, for example in Germany, including Latvia, there is a dual education system, which gives opportunities for vocational education institutions to cooperate with companies to more flexibly implement vocational education programs, according to an individual study plan. Work-based learning requires that at least 25 percent of the total educational program must be completed in the company. The company can organize not only practice of professional content, but also theory.

Workplace learning is based on practical activity, because knowledge is not constant, it changes continuously, as a result of which workplace learning is perceived as a continuous process. Learning is directly related to work, and workplace learning is one way to develop the skills and knowledge necessary for employees to perform their direct duties. Workplace learning can be organized using various non-formal education methods, such as coaching, mentoring, e-learning and experiential learning. The mentioned methods can be supplemented with formal training courses outside the workplace with the aim of promoting or expanding the acquisition of experience. The increase in general interest in workplace learning can also be explained by the following factors: first, new forms of work organization such as remote work; secondly, the workplace is generally recognized as a place of learning and thirdly, national governments aim to increase the skills and capacity of the workforce for innovation in order to compete successfully in the global market (Fuller, 2010). At the same time, the involvement of employees in informal learning activities is considered not only as an effective organization of work, but also as a prerequisite for the social inclusion of employees (CEDEFOP, 2016).

 

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Used and recommended literature

Armstrong, M. (2016). Armstrong's handbook of strategic human resource management. Sixth edition. London; Philadelphia: Kogan Page

Arrow, K. J. (1962). „The economic implications of learning by doing”. The Review of Economic Studies, 29, 155–173.

Avis, J. (2010) Workplace learning, knowledge, practice and transformation. Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies, 8(2), 165-193.

Beckett, D. & Hager, P. (2002). Life, Work and Learning: Practice in Postmodernity, London: Routledge

Billett, S. (2001). „Learning throughout working life: interdependencies at work”. Studies in Continuing Education, 23(1), 19–35.

Billett, S. (2002). „Critiquing workplace learning discourses: participation and continuity at work”. Studies in the Education of Adults, 34(1), 56–67.

Billett, S. (2004). Learning through work: workplace participatory practices. Text from: Workplace learning in context, pp. 109–125. London: Routledge.

Billett, S. (2007). ‘‘Constituting the workplace curriculum’’. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 38(1), 31-48.

Billett, S. (2011). Subjectivity, self and personal agency in learning through and for work. Text from:  The SAGE handbook of workplace learning, pp. 60–72.Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Boud, D., & Garrick, J. (1999). Understanding learning at work. London: Routledge

Cedefop (2016). Unequal access to job-related learning: Evidence from the adult education survey. Research Paper No. 52. https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/5552_en.pdf

Clarke, N. 2005. Workplace learning environment and its relationship with learning outcomes in healthcareorganizations. Human Resource Development International, 8 (2), 185-205.

Collin, K. et al. (2011). Work, power and learning in a risk filled occupation, Management Learning, 42(3), 301-318.

Elkjaer, B. & Høyrup, Steen & Pedersen, Karen. (2007). Contemporary Nordic research on workplace learning. Text from: Competence development as workplace learning, Chapter: 2, pp.19-42. Innsbruck University Press.

Engeström, Y. (2001). Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualization. Journal of Education and Work, 14(1), 133–156. 

Eraut, M. (2000). „Non-formal learning and tacit knowledge in professional work”. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 113–136.

Eraut, M. (2004). „Informal learning in the workplace”. Studies in Continuing Education. 26(2), 247–273.

Fenwick, T. (2008). „Understanding relations in individual-collective learning in work: a review of research”. Management Learning, 39(3), 227–243.

Fuller, A. & Unwin, L. (2010). Workplace learning and the organization. Text from: The Sage Handbook of Workplace Learning. Chapter:4, pp. 46-59. London: Sage

Hager, P. (2011). Theories of workplace learning. Text from: The sage handbook workplace learning, pp. 17-31. London: Sage

Hodkinson, P. & Hodkinson, H. (2004). „The Complexities of Workplace Learning: Problems and Dangers in Trying to Measure Attainment”. Text from: Workplace learning in context, pp.259–75. London: Routledge

Yeo, R. K. (2008). „How does learning (not) take place in problem-based learning a ctivities in workplace contexts?” Human Resource Development International, 11(3), 317-330.

Jacobs, R. L., & Park, Y. (2009). A Proposed Conceptual Framework of Workplace Learning: Implications for Theory Development and Research in Human Resource Development. Human Resource Development Review, 8(2), 133–150.

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lohman, M. (2005). A survey of factors influencing the engagement of two professional groups in informalworkplace learning activities. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 16 (4), 501-27.

Marsick, V. (1987). Learning in the Workplace, Croom Helm, London and New York, NY.

Marsick, V. J., & Volpe, M. (1999). „The nature and need for informal learning”. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 1(1), 1–9.

Marsick, V. J., & Watkins, K. E. (1990). Informal and incidental learning in the workplace. London: Routledge

Marsick, V.J., &Watkins, K.E. (2003).  „Demonstrating the Value of anOrganization’s Learning Culture:The Dimensions of the LearningOrganization Questionnaire”, Advances in Developing Human Resources, 5(2), 132-15.

Matthews, P. (1999). "Workplace learning: developing an holistic model", The Learning Organization, 6(1), 18-29.

Nikolova, I., Van Ruysseveld, J., De Witte, H. and Syroit, J. (2014). Work-based learning: development andvalidation of a scale measuring the learning potential of the workplace (LPW). Journal of Vocational Behavior, 84 (1), 1-10.

Park, S., & Lee, J. (2018). "Workplace learning measures for human resource development: review and summary", Industrial and Commercial Training, 50 (7/8), 420-431.

Rashman, L., Withers, E., & Hartley, J. (2009). „Organizational learning and knowledge in public service organizations: a systematic review of the literature”. International Journal of Management Reviews, 11(4), 463–494.

Sambrook, S. (2005). „Factors influencing the context and process of work-related learning: Synthesizing findings from two research projects”. Human Resource Development International, 8, 101-119.

Silverman, M. (2003). „Supporting Workplace Learning: A background paper for IES Research Network Members”. The Institute for Employment Studies, 1-22.

Svensson, L., Ellström, P. & Åberg, C. (2004). "Integrating formal and informal learning at work", Journal of Workplace Learning, 16(8), 479-491.

Tynjälä, P. (2013).  „Toward a 3-P Model of Workplace Learning: a Literature Review”. Vocations and Learning, 6(1), 11–36 .

Watkins, K. and Marsick, V.(1992). Towards a theory of informal and incidental learning in organizations. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 11 (4), 287-300.

Izglītības likums (1998). https://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=50759.

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