Abstract

This chapter highlights several of the significant design and facilitation considerations used to support adult working learners pursuing online learning across educational contexts. These include the integration of inclusive online learning practices, the design and facilitation of quality interactions in the online environment, and application and transfer of the online content to individual contexts.

INTRODUCTION

All adult learners come to their learning opportunities complete with a rich and complex history of life experience and learning that informs their preferences, priorities, and ability to engage. Adult working learners (AWLs) in particular are likely to have full-time employment and significant personal responsibilities. Many of these responsibilities may compete for the attention, energy and availability of AWLs to engage in adult learning activities. As such, any training, program, or course that serves AWLs must be prepared to acknowledge and accommodate their complex lives and histories. The following three fictional descriptions present many of the key characteristics of AWLs engaging in online learning.

Thomas

Thomas is a young single father who works in construction. He had to drop out of school to provide for his daughter who was born when he was in high school. He is now working on completing his GED so he can have more career opportunities. He also wants to set an example for his daughter who is now in middle school. He is taking online classes to prepare him for taking his GED. He works during the day and cares for his daughter in the evenings and weekends, so needs to take classes asynchronously online so he can participate from home when it is convenient for his family and other responsibilities.

Fatima

Fatima is working for a manufacturing firm as a test technician. She has been in the role of supporting the test programs and machines for the last three years. She started with the company as a line worker, and her strong mathematics skills put Fatima in a position to get the technician's job. She is looking to move up in the company and in order to do that she needs to complete the management training courses around her overnight shift schedule. Fatima is anxious about the program because she has never taken courses online before.

Casey

Casey is a military veteran returning to school to earn a bachelor's degree in nursing. They always enjoyed learning but are nervous about the campus and classroom environment due to trauma and injury sustained while on active duty. In addition to a Veteran's Services office, the university they've chosen offers a variety of online, hybrid, and in-person options for many courses, which appealed to Casey's desire to explore alternative classroom environments that may better suit their needs.

OVERVIEW

This chapter will highlight some of the numerous significant online design and facilitation considerations that support AWLs across educational contexts. Here, we adopt a broad definition of adult working learner as any adult who is “simultaneously pursuing paid employment and educational advancement” (Stevens et al., 2022, p. 18), and more specifically, AWLs who are seeking educational advancement in online learning environments. Through systematic design and purposeful facilitation, online adult educators can support AWLs in pursuit of their professional and personal goals, thus fulfilling the ultimate purpose of adult education.

We next present some fundamental considerations of modality and structure for programs serving AWLs. We then provide descriptions, design considerations and facilitation practices through three pillars of support for online AWLs: inclusive learning practices, quality interactions, and practical application and transfer.

SETTING THE STAGE: MODALITY AND STRUCTURE

A facilitation plan should respect and account for AWLs’ competing obligations by providing as much flexibility as reasonable. In particular, we consider when and how facilitators want learners to engage and for what purpose, and then how to design to optimize learner engagement with a minimum of additional constraints.

Modality choice is a key consideration for flexible design. Both fully online and hybrid designs offer flexibility to AWLs online (McKenna et al., 2020). A fully online course creates flexibility in the sense that learners need not be physically present at a specific location in order to engage in learning. Instead, they can learn from their home, workplace, or a convenient location of their choosing, such as a library or coffee shop. This not only reduces the schedule burden attached to travel time but may also reduce the financial burden by minimizing the need for transportation or childcare and removing any geographical bounds to learning.

The introduction of online components for a hybrid approach to traditionally in-person structures may be appropriate. Some learning opportunities may require in-person components, for example, skill-based training or programs that involve time in a lab or workshop, such as welding, art, and many healthcare professions. Alternatively, some tasks or requirements may be converted to online formats using video, virtual or augmented reality, or other technology tools specifically designed for such a purpose. A hybrid design may enable learners to fulfill their hands-on obligation as needed but enjoy flexibility in the other course components for content delivery, discussion with peers and facilitators, presentation of skill mastery, and other activities. The choice between fully online and a hybrid or blended approach likely depends on learning goals, the needs of the specific AWL population, and any other organizational or institutional constraints (McKenna et al., 2020).

Recognizing barriers to adult learning informs flexible facilitation for AWLs. Both synchronous and asynchronous online designs present opportunities for AWLs. Synchronous design involves online meetings among the facilitator and learners at specific, planned times, with options such as Zoom or Microsoft Teams. Synchronous design enables learner interaction with the facilitator and peers, with real-time feedback and content learning. Additionally for AWLs, the schedule structure of a synchronous design that requires dedicated time and mental space may be useful, enabling learners to set firm boundaries. In contrast, it may be challenging to carve out such time from an already full calendar. Synchronous events are also impacted by conflicts or interruptions.

Asynchronous design is structured in such a way that learners engage in the training or course at times of their own choosing. While there are typically schedules of events and deadlines, there are no set meeting times; AWLs may login to a learning management system (LMS) to participate at will, subject to the overarching course schedule. Asynchronous facilitation creates flexible timing for learners who may engage according to their own schedules and develop contributions at their own pace. Such formats more easily accommodate work or family obligations at odd, changing, or unpredictable hours but are also subject to challenges such as out-of-sight-out-of-mind, delayed interactions, and extended duration of exchanges slowing progress.

THREE PILLARS OF SUPPORT FOR ADULT WORKING LEARNERS

For AWLs who determine that some form of online learning—be it fully online, hybrid, synchronous, or asynchronous—is the best approach for their education or training, there are aspects of the design and facilitation that can support their success and help to mitigate many of the challenges associated with being an adult learner and participating online. These determinants to the AWLs success in online learning, include the integration of inclusive online learning practices, the design and facilitation of quality interactions in the online environment, and application and transfer of the online content to their individual contexts.

INCLUSIVE LEARNING PRACTICES

The leading consideration anyone who engages with AWLs should keep in mind is that AWLs are a diverse group of learners. This is magnified when working with AWLs at a distance as those in this group generally represent a larger variety of demographic backgrounds, differing instructional needs, varied life experiences, and unique challenges (Shirky, 2015). All of these aspects can affect the experience and success AWLs have when engaging in online learning. In order to address these realities, adult educators need to deliberately employ inclusive design and facilitation practices.

Varied materials and activities

In selecting materials and activities that support inclusivity for AWLs in online environments, a key idea to remember is variety. Providing variety in activities is ideal to support the diversity of ways through which AWLs learn. Activities might include individual work (essays, quizzes, reflections), interactive events (discussion boards, presentations, question and answer sessions), and group work (projects, presentations). Each of these activities allow AWLs to learn on their own and with one another to create positive learning experiences and increased motivation to learn (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 2017). By using materials from various sources and in various formats, the likelihood increases that learners will find something personally meaningful to them. When learners connect to content (because of their backgrounds, experiences, or identities) they more deeply engage with what they are learning, feel supported, and have an increased motivation to learn (Devlin & McKay, 2016). This occurs because the content itself has meaning, the source of the content is someone they can identify with, or the content is presented in a way they are simultaneously comfortable with and challenged by (Smith Jaggars & Xu, 2016; Stone & Springer, 2019). This connection is especially important in online learning where the lack of geographic boundaries mean learners can represent a wide variety of cultural, racial, religious, family, and other backgrounds (Tapanes et al., 2009). In addition, online instruction can be heavily reliant on the written word (articles, discussions) yet this is not always how learners best learn content (Smith Jaggars & Xu, 2016; Stone & Springer, 2019). Additionally, text-heavy content delivery can be challenging for learners who struggle with reading; some individuals may not have sufficient digital literacy skills. To address these items, instructional materials for AWLs should include as many of these as are possible and relevant: (1) books and articles including nonfiction, fiction, classics and new publications, scholarly and opinion pieces, (2) videos, movies, and TV shows, (3) guest speakers, and (4) podcasts and radio shows. The materials should come from a variety of authors or creators with different perspectives, identities, and life experiences.

Fatima and varied materials and activities

One of Fatima's biggest fears is whether she really belongs in management. She knows and performs her job exceptionally well but she still has no indication whether she can translate this into a management role. Fortunately, in the second module of her management course there are two videos, a TEDtalk and an interview, one featuring an executive manager of color and one a group of women who are all in middle- and upper-management. These women had many similarities in their backgrounds to Fatima's. Seeing herself in these individuals inspires Fatima to do additional course reading (which she typically struggles with). Further, during a group work session in which she contributes significantly to a project she really starts to believe in herself and even learns some things about her management approach.

Accessibility

Another important consideration when planning for inclusive online learning for AWLs is to ensure materials and the course design are accessible so that all learners can utilize these items regardless of any limitations or learning challenges they may have. It is through elimination of as many barriers as possible that we allow learners to create and maintain a positive attitude towards their learning (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 2017). For example, Casey was not comfortable disclosing to their instructor that due to an injury sustained while in the military they find it difficult to focus solely on written words. They process information better if it is read aloud. If all of their course written materials are created in such a way to allow them to be read by a screen reader, Casey is better able to engage with their learning and they do not have to share their disability with their instructor.

In terms of accessibility, it can feel overwhelming for an adult educator new to design and facilitation to know where to start. There are a few items to address that are easy starting places but can make a noticeable difference in terms of online accessibility. Readings (textbooks, articles, pdfs) should be created to be compatible with screen reading software so they are accessible to people with various vision impairments and those who process better through auditory means. Many programs have built-in accessibility checkers (word processing programs, presentation software, learning management systems) so that adult educators do not need to be experts to create accessible items. Second, any embedded or hyperlinks for materials, web content, or course navigation should use descriptive wording and a font that presents enough contrast so learners with visual challenges can recognize it. Further, images should have alternative descriptive text. Finally, videos should include accurate closed captioning and, if applicable, descriptive services. Many video capture systems create relatively accurate automatic captions, so there is only a need to correct errors, rather than engage in the time consuming job of creating completely new captions.

Assessment flexibility

In terms of assessment flexibility, it is important to consider both due dates and assessment formats. There are several reasons why providing flexible due dates is a particularly important inclusive practice for online AWLs. First, online learners may encounter unforeseen technology issues (internet connectivity, hardware malfunctions) when submitting assignments. These have nothing to do with the work they have accomplished and thus should not affect their ability to succeed. It is not uncommon that AWLs are new to online education or the LMS used to deliver instruction. It can take time to learn to properly navigate online learning requirements, including assignment submission tools. Providing flexibility in due dates ensures learners are not penalized because they are learning a new technology. AWLs of diverse backgrounds may have reasons they cannot submit an assessment on a particular due date (religious observances, caring for sick family members). Or, they may not be comfortable disclosing why their work is late or asking for an exception. In cases like this, offering a “life happens” pass and allowing them to turn in work after the due date or directly reaching out and asking them if they are experiencing challenges turning in their work on time can encourage AWLs to continue with their learning rather than creating an environment where they feel they cannot succeed and ultimately need to stop participation (Torres, 2019).

In addition to due date flexibility, it is an important inclusive practice to provide flexibility in the assessments themselves. As previously noted, since geographic boundaries for participation are not a factor in online learning there is an increased possibility of working with a greater diversity of learners. Since not all learners effectively demonstrate their learning in the same way, if there is a larger diversity of learners, the possibility of needing a variety of assessment formats increases. While exams have long been the assessment method of choice, there can be many drawbacks to using these in online learning including a lack of appropriate technology for distance proctoring services, the need for substantial planning by the instructor, learner privacy concerns, and additional stress for learners (Cooney & Kleeman, 2023). Instead of automatically choosing an exam as an assessment method, adult educators can start by defining what learners need to do or know as a result of their learning (Davis & Arend, 2013). From there they can come up with various appropriate ways to demonstrate that learning (Parmer, 2020). For example, if in Casey's nursing class they need to be able to explain how blood moves through the circulatory system, they could be given the choice to write an essay, draw a diagram, or verbally explain the process. Educators can also engage the learners themselves in a discussion on how they feel they can best show how they met a learning objective. These options both allow the AWL to express what they have learned in the way that best fits their approach to learning and it also fits within the parameters of online education.

Thomas and assignment flexibility

In one of Thomas’ GED classes the instructor has a policy that if a student knows they are going to turn in an assignment late they can communicate with the instructor before the due date. The learner needs to identify what the problem is, propose a solution, and have a discussion with the instructor. Thomas’ culture defers to authority figures and does not question their rules. So, when his daughter gets sick and he is unable to turn in a major assignment on time, this course policy allows him to feel confident he can still turn in the work late and thus successfully finish the class. In a class with a “no late work” policy, Thomas would likely have to drop the class as he would feel as though the instructor's rule would not support his asking for an extension or even reaching out to the instructor.

QUALITY INTERACTIONS

AWLs come to educational contexts with a wealth of experience that can be applied to and support their learning. Thus, when designing and facilitating learning it is important to ensure that interactions between the learners, with the instructor, and with the content are built into the course to utilize this expertise. In the online environment it may be easy to ignore this significant learning support and simply create educational experiences that do not incorporate interactions, but this can negatively affect an adult's online learning experience (York & Richardson, 2012).

When designing online educational experiences for the AWL, it is important to consider three types of interaction, learner-to-learner, learner-to-instructor, and learner-to-content. Online learning can be isolating, particularly for the AWL who is balancing a variety of roles and responsibilities (Phirangee & Malec, 2017). By integrating interactions into the online course design, this isolation can be mitigated. AWLs may also vary widely in their self-direction and self-regulation skills. Interaction creates opportunities for learners to engage with one another and learn from each other's experiences related to the course content, building accountability and peer support.

Learner-to-learner

Designing opportunities for learner interactions is imperative to AWLs success and satisfaction in the online learning environment. Do not overlook this significant contributor in online learning that leads to community and social knowledge construction. When learner-to-learner interactions are integrated into course design, learners realize they are not alone in this distance experience, and they have the potential for a built-in support system (Croft et al., 2010). In addition, the design of a course that supports these interactions creates space for the exchange of ideas, the opportunity to develop ideas, and a deepened understanding. Learner-to-learner interactions should also be encouraged outside of the formal course environment (McKenna, 2018). Within the course design consider collaborative projects, peer reviews, and discussion activities. Each of these learner-to-learner experiences take intentionality when designing online but align with common in-person practices.

Discussions are a space in an online course where there is potential for significant learner-to-learner interaction if they are initially optimally designed for online interaction and they are facilitated in a way that is most beneficial for AWLs (McKenna et al., 2022). According to McKenna et al. this involves engagement, but not domination by a facilitator. If facilitated well, online discussions create space for learners to reflect prior to interacting and for all learners to interact in the space leading to social knowledge construction. The success of learner-to-learner interaction within discussions is further supported when facilitators provide ground rules and expectations for online interactions, followed by examples of what discussion participation should look like (McKenna et al.). Finally, facilitation should encourage the inclusion of AWL experiences within the discussion.

Casey and learner-to-learner interaction

Due to PTSD resulting from their military experience, Casey struggles with feedback from authority figures. However, collaboration and teamwork are very important to them and they are very receptive to feedback from their peers. When an online discussion area is designed as a space for all voices to engage with course content and apply it to their individual contexts this supports Casey's need for a team of support and the social knowledge construction that can result. Also, when Casey shares ideas in this space, they are more open to the constructive feedback their peers provide regarding their work. In addition, they consider their job to be as a support for their peers and they provide feedback to help support the common goal.

Learner-to-instructor

Learner-to-instructor interactions have the potential to be minimal or one directional online. And yet, with the absence of in person exchanges, especially in asynchronous courses, this adds to the isolation adult working learners already often experience in the online environment. An AWL's experience with and feelings toward an instructor significantly impact their overall satisfaction in an online course (Martin & Bolliger, 2022), thus the course design should incorporate a variety of learner-to-instructor interaction opportunities. This should include some formal interactions (feedback on assignments, performance) but also more informal interactions between the two (Gebhardt & McKenna, 2019), which demonstrate that the instructor is a real person the learners can relate to in addition to being their instructor. These informal interactions may occur as introductions, check in meetings, announcements of timely information, or responses to questions posed. In the online learning space, the timing of these interactions is of significant importance as they may be occurring asynchronously, and AWLs are often balancing numerous roles and responsibilities and need timely exchanges with their instructors to feel supported in this space (Hodge & Chenelle, 2018). All of these interactive opportunities should be regarded when designing an online learning experience for AWL.

Timely and individualized learner feedback is a significant online interaction between the learner and instructor that supports learner satisfaction (Martin & Bolliger, 2022). In addition, feedback is an opportunity for learners to get to know their instructor one-on-one. Facilitators need to realize this aspect of interaction is an opportunity for AWLs to better get to know their online instructors and share more about their educational journeys. This engagement will create opportunities for improved future support and individualization.

Thomas and learner-to-instructor interaction

Because Thomas has struggled with educational opportunities in the past and had life events prohibit his continued participation, it's important for his continued success that he feels comfortable interacting with the instructor. Through the use of ongoing communications such as a check-in with the instructor at the start of the course focused on how he can be successful and a follow-up a few weeks in checking on how things are going, he will feel more confident sharing struggles he encounters with the instructor. This will also allow the instructor to better support his individual needs and create an opportunity for them both to be more proactive in his successful completion of the course.

Learner-to-content

As discussed above, AWLs need course content to be applicable and meaningful to their lives. This includes learner-to-content interactions that support learning transfer to their individual contexts. The delivery of content is the basic foundation of online education, but with the advances in delivery of online education the learner-to-content interaction has expanded. Presenting the content in a multitude of ways and in ways that support AWLs previous experiences is important, as described previously. Ideally the content should be applied to a variety of contexts to support AWLs and learners should be supported in reflecting on the content and its alignment with their context. The presentation of content to AWLs should also follow best practices for online learning by engaging the learner rather than simply presenting the content. If Fatima's management training course included content resources that align with ones she typically engages with as a test technician such as videos or pamphlets, this will likely better support her learning than simply posting a lecture online. Being flexible in how learners are able to interact with the content based on their goals and work contexts will better support AWLs and further supports their successful participation in online learning.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION AND TRANSFER

It is difficult to imagine a situation where an AWL engages in learning but they are not meant to do something with it outside of the learning setting, whether a new job skill, personal development, or preparation for future learning (Foley & Kaiser, 2013). What adults choose or are required to learn is meant to be applied to impact their work or their lives. Yet, instructors often assume that just because something was taught, learners automatically know how to effectively transfer it outside of where it was learned (Weber, 2014) or they simply do not know how to support learning for transfer (Schraff et al., 2017). The reality is that helping learners apply and transfer their learning needs to be intentionally planned (Merriam & Leahy, 2005; Roumell, 2019) and the deliberate nature of this only becomes more crucial in online settings where there is often less direct interaction and involvement. The main areas that educators need to be cognizant of to encourage learning transfer include audience analysis, matching learning outcomes to methods, scaffolding, offering real-world connections, and reflection.

While conducting an audience analysis is an expected step in the design of any type of learning (Brown & Green, 2020), it has increased significance when considering its effect on learning transfer for AWLs. By conducting an audience analysis we can discern the complexities of AWLs including their prior experiences, goals, expectations, current knowledge and skills, barriers, and their expectations for application (Kaminski et al., 2013). Learners will naturally struggle with application if a course does not pertain to what they need/want to know or if it is not designed for their learning situation. This is particularly crucial to address in online learning as the geographic dispersion of the audience may result in a diverse group of learners with varying needs, backgrounds, and experiences (Tapanes et al., 2009).

A second consideration to encourage application and transfer of learning is ensuring learning outcomes are matched to how learners engage in and demonstrate their learning (Davis & Arend, 2013). Few things derail application of learning more quickly than being taught something in a way that is not matched to what needs to be learned (Cooney & Kleeman, 2023). Take our example of Casey, the military veteran returning to school to earn a nursing degree. If Casey were taught how to place an IV via a powerpoint presentation and assessed through a multiple choice exam, it would not be surprising if they were unable to successfully complete this procedure. A better approach would be to engage Casey in practice exercises, actually placing an IV (for example in an orange) and then having them demonstrate this skill for the instructor via video. In an online setting, the many tools and technologies available for both teaching methods and assessments make designing learning this way quite manageable.

Scaffolding is also an important consideration to encourage application and transfer (Foley & Kaiser, 2013; Sousa, 2022). In online settings, learners may have less frequent or even no direct contact with the instructor. Issues or problems may go undetected unless there is a way to check on learner progress on a regular basis and intervene as needed. Providing smaller and frequent formative or low-stakes assessments (such as quizzes or weekly journals) or having new work build on previous work, eventually resulting in a single full project, are ways to include scaffolding in learning design. It is difficult for AWLs to move toward application if instruction does not start where each individual learner is and potential issues are not caught and addressed in a timely manner. Such early identification of concerns is particularly important for AWLs with lower literacy skills or digital literacy skills who may then need direct intervention or additional support.

Facilitating opportunities to apply knowledge and skills to real-world contexts, as opposed to decontextualized learning content, is also one of the keys to learning transfer (Furman & Sibthorp, 2013). Doing so offers AWLs an opportunity to try out what they are learning and see what it may look like outside of the learning setting. Popular facilitation approaches include the use of problem or project-based learning, simulations, case studies, gamification, virtual reality, or service-learning. Incorporating these reality-based activities online can be relatively simple as there are countless technologies and programs available. Many of these programs have integrated feedback and self-correcting capabilities, which help keep learners on track and simplify the instructor's workload.

Finally, we, the authors, can confidently say through our many combined years of teaching, from the experience of AWLs we know and who are often educators themselves, and supported by research (Ash & Clayton, 2009; Lougran, 2002) that reflection is the key component that supports learners to apply and transfer what they have learned. Reflection allows learners to take abstract concepts presented in an educational setting and understand how those concepts impact and influence their own situations. Adult educators know the importance of reflection as it is foundational to established adult education concepts such as transformative learning, experiential learning, and constructivism (Kolb & Kolb, 2018; Kreber, 2012; Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020). Yet, there needs to be intentional planned reflective activities in online education, as learners may not choose to do this on their own. To this end, providing online-appropriate reflective activities and varying approaches to reflection is important. For example, learners can capture reflections in written, audio or video formats. Also consider allowing AWLs to approach reflections in the way that best fits their preferences (concept map, visual representation, summary of a discussion, poetry). Reflections are individual and thus should match how a learner best processes and synthesizes their thoughts and learning in order to be effective.

Thomas and learning transfer

Understanding Thomas’ background and life situation is crucial to ensuring he can engage in his GED coursework and transfer it to successfully complete his GED exam. An audience analysis would reveal that, based on his work and family obligations, he needs to engage in asynchronous online learning to fit around his schedule. He also does not have a strong academic background, having dropped out of high school. His instructor needs to provide him the opportunity for ongoing feedback and scaffolded work in order to build the academic skills and confidence to allow him to succeed in his current educational goal.

Fatima and learning transfer

Fatima's anxiety about engaging in the management training course can partially be alleviated by encouraging her to link her learning to prior experiences and to expand her learning through current experience. Her online instructor can require her to practice what she is learning through a current work project (her workplace becomes her “lab”) thus providing a real-world experience. Additionally, her instructor can encourage her to engage in ongoing reflection on what is and isn't working in that project and why. These approaches are all compatible with online learning and will allow her to transfer what she is learning to her eventual new management role.

CONCLUSION

Because of the complexity of challenges for AWLs in online learning environments additional and significant considerations need to be made when designing and facilitating online learning events for them. These considerations allow for inclusivity, meaning, belonging, success, and practicality for AWLs. By putting these considerations into practice, adult educators in any online instructional environment will increasingly support AWLs and subsequently see greater success in aiding them in reaching their goals.

Biographies

• Leann Kaiser is an associate professor in the Adult Education and Training Program at Colorado State University. She uses her knowledge of creating optimal distance student education experiences, facilitating online learning, and learning transfer to help improve the practice of adult educators.

• Kelly McKenna is an associate professor in the Adult Education and Training Program at Colorado State University recognized for her distance teaching. Her scholarship prioritizes creating optimal learning environments and successful learner experiences online.

• Tobin Lopes is an associate professor in the Adult Education and Training Program at Colorado State University. He is known for his passion for online facilitation and poetry assignments. His research focuses on using large data sets to investigate the nature of learning, teaching, and behavior.

• Jill Zarestky, PhD, is an associate professor of Adult Education and Training in the Colorado State University School of Education. Her research focuses on adult STEM education, and emphasizes issues of conservation and sustainability.